National Security: A Journal of the National Defence University-Kenya
The National Security journal is a peer-reviewed academic publication of the National Defence University–Kenya (NDU-K), published under the auspices of the Centre for Security and Strategic Studies. Volume 1, Issue 1 was launched on 1st April 2023. It provides a scholarly platform for rigorous analysis of national, regional, and international security issues. The journal’s scope is deliberately broad and interdisciplinary: it encompasses traditional defence and strategic studies as well as peace and conflict resolution, governance and development, diplomacy, and emerging domains of security (e.g., cybersecurity, technology, and human security). The Journal aims to disseminate vibrant, promising, and multidisciplinary cutting-edge research in the broad field of security, development, strategy, national interest, and policy. Each issue is thematic, reflecting current challenges. By bridging theoretical scholarship and policy relevance, the journal seeks to deepen evidence-based dialogue on defence and security.
The Spectrum of Faith in Trauma Healing in Post-Conflict Reconstruction in the Great Lakes Region
Faith Spectrum as a construct of post-war reconstruction manifests under operational scale, liturgical praxis, and relational ethics, which, if well-structured and efficiently coordinated, lead to successful social restoration and realisation of desired peace-building goals. The objective of this study is to examine the roles and mechanisms through which the spectrum of faith, as defined in this study, represents the convergence of Biblical understanding, psychological support, and peacebuilding, and how it can be applied in post-conflict reconstruction in the Great Lakes Region. The Great Lakes region hosts a dozen distinct ethnic groups and over 250 ethnic communities. The region has experienced a myriad of conflicts that have led to the displacement of the human population. Most peacebuilding strategies applied in the region have been unsuccessful. This study, therefore, adopts an eclectic approach that integrates a spectrum of theological, psychological, diplomatic, and peacebuilding frameworks as a model for a holistic peacebuilding approach. This goal is further achieved through the theoretical frame of Restorative Justice Theory (RJT) and religious Track II diplomacy. The study adopted a qualitative-priority, mixed-methods design. This specific framework was chosen because the research objective is centred on the thematic exploration of deep-seated psychological and spiritual constructs that cannot be fully captured through numerical data alone. The study concludes that the spectrum of faith model challenges traditional peacebuilding interventions by creating holistic and comprehensive healing methodologies. The study recommends that the spectrum of faith model be adopted as part of the governance framework by conflict-prone nations in the Great Lakes region, due to its social ethics and non-violent means of reconstructing the social fabric severed by conflict. There is an urgent need for regional organisations to work in collaboration with various Non-governmental Organizations operating within the Great Lakes region to infuse a spectrum of faith into their operations and guide their participation in peace processes.
Conflict, faith spectrum, trauma healing, post-war reconstruction, Great Lakes region
Copyright (c) 2026 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Youth Bulge and Multidimensional Human Security
The intersection of rapid demographic expansion and human security remains an underexplored area in sub-Saharan African policy research. This study examines the multidimensional impact of the youth bulge on economic, environmental, social, and political security in Baringo County, Kenya—a region in which persons aged 15–35 years constitute approximately 60 per cent of the total population. Employing a mixed-methods design, the study draws on a stratified random survey of 114 respondents alongside semi-structured key informant interviews with county government officials, community leaders, and youth representatives. Multiple regression analysis reveals that high youth unemployment (β = 0.401; p < 0.001) and social instability (β = 0.342; p < 0.001) are the strongest predictors of diminished human security, while untapped demographic dividend (β = −0.195; p < 0.01) compounds structural vulnerability. The model explains 67.3 per cent of variance in human security outcomes (R² = 0.673; F = 47.82; p < 0.001). Qualitative evidence corroborates survey findings, underscoring resource depletion, youth political marginalisation, and rising criminality as interlocking threats. Yet the study also identifies nascent opportunities: youth-led conservation initiatives, emerging entrepreneurship, and community vigilance efforts signal latent social capital that, with appropriate policy scaffolding, could convert demographic pressure into a dividend. The article contributes to human security theory by situating demographic transition within devolved governance contexts, extending the analytical reach of Social Capital Theory to marginalised youth cohorts in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs). Policy implications focus on integrated youth employment strategies, decentralised social service delivery, participatory environmental governance, and inclusive political architecture.
youth bulge; human security; demographic dividend; Baringo County; arid and semi-arid lands
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Tax Policymaking and Stakeholder Inclusion
This study examines the relationship between tax policy-making processes and stakeholder inclusion in Kenya, with a focus on fiscal legitimacy and taxpayer compliance. The analysis draws on a document corpus comprising national budget statements, Finance Acts, public participation reports, parliamentary committee proceedings, and policy briefs produced between 2013 and 2024, a period marked by significant fiscal reforms, including Value Added Tax (VAT) restructuring, digital service taxes, and the introduction of the iTax platform. Using an exploratory qualitative design, the study applies thematic document analysis, combining inductive and deductive coding to identify patterns in institutional frameworks, participation practices, and accountability mechanisms. The study utilises Governance Theory together with Public Choice Theory and Stakeholder Theory frameworks to explain how stakeholder inclusion in tax policy-making shapes fiscal legitimacy. Findings show that participation is largely procedural, with formal hearings and memoranda not consistently influencing final policy; representational disparities are significant, as 62% of submissions came from large corporations and professional bodies, while only 18% were from civil society and informal sector groups; and feedback opacity persists, with limited reporting on how inputs shape policy. Second, representational inequality is reflected in the disproportionate influence of large corporate actors and professional associations, compared to limited engagement with informal sector groups and marginalized taxpayers. Third, the lack of systematic reporting on how public inputs shape policy outcomes creates feedback opacity, which weakens transparency and trust. The study finds that fiscal legitimacy is more likely to be strengthened where participation is early, inclusive, and accompanied by transparent feedback loops. It argues that the quality, not merely the presence, of stakeholder inclusion constitutes a key mechanism linking tax policy processes to compliance outcomes. By elucidating the influence of procedural design elements of participation on legitimacy, the study enhances the discourse on governance and public finance by proposing a process-oriented framework for understanding fiscal legitimacy in developing nations.
Tax policy, stakeholder inclusion, governance, fiscal legitimacy, public finance management
Corporate Social Responsibility in Defence-Managed State Enterprises
The growing involvement of defence institutions in non-military sectors of the economy has raised an important, though still insufficiently theorised, question for civil-military relations and corporate governance: how should corporate social responsibility (CSR) be understood when a military institution manages a civilian-facing state enterprise? This paper examines that question through the case of Kenya Shipyards Limited (KSL) in Kisumu, a state-owned enterprise managed by the Ministry of Defence and positioned within Kenya’s blue economy and industrialisation agenda. Drawing on civil-military relations theory, state capitalism and state-owned enterprise governance, and strategic CSR scholarship, the paper argues that CSR in defence-managed enterprises should not be reduced to philanthropy or reputational messaging. Rather, it should be understood as an embedded governance practice through which such enterprises demonstrate public value, legitimacy and accountability. Using a qualitative documentary case study, the paper analyses how KSL’s public record links CSR to three observable domains: strategic public-value delivery through shipbuilding and transport infrastructure, workforce and skills development through institutional partnerships, and safety-oriented product innovation for lake communities. The paper further argues that the central governance challenge is not whether defence-managed enterprises can deliver developmental outcomes but whether such delivery is matched by routine disclosure, measurable responsibility, and effective oversight. In this way, the article contributes to CSR scholarship, civil-military relations, and African political economy by showing that defence-led corporate management in a democratic setting is best assessed through the intersection of performance, public value, and accountability.
Strategic CSR, defence-managed enterprises, civil–military, accountability and transparency, Kenya Shipyards Limited
Psychosocial Drivers of National Security Dynamics amid Gen Z Resistance to Finance Bill 2024 in Kenya
The protests in Kenya following the passage of the Finance Bill 2024 posed a national security threat. The incident prompted an assessment of mental health issues among Generation Z, popularly known as Gen Z. The gradual process that began with agitation to reject the Bill escalated into full-blown protests after Parliament endorsed it. The study aimed to evaluate the state of mental well-being among Generation Z before, during, and after the protests; to examine the underlying triggers that fueled the unrest; and to assess the post-protest consequences, including loss of life and property, economic disruptions, and existential stressors contributing to depression and a growing sense of collective dissatisfaction, all of which have implications for national security. A qualitative survey design was employed, targeting approximately 18.3 million Gen Z individuals. The sampling procedure involved a systematic review of protest-related coverage from three mainstream media outlets, Citizen TV, KTN News, and NTV, including live broadcasts, online streams, reports, and interviews. Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach was applied to assess five key markers aligned with the existential dimensions of the Gen Z protests. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with a control group to explore the psychosocial factors underpinning the widespread violence. The findings indicate that the state of mental well-being among Gen Z contributed to the emergence of highly mobilised demonstrators advocating for socioeconomic transformation, with demands framed around perceived endemic corruption and government impunity. The evolving narratives shaping the discourse between the state and Gen Z, alongside concerns about mental wellbeing within an increasingly tech-savvy generation, raise critical questions about governance in Kenya. In conclusion, the study underscores the critical intersection between youth mental wellbeing, sociopolitical engagement, and national security, highlighting the need for responsive governance frameworks that address both the psychosocial and structural drivers of unrest in contemporary Kenya. The study recommends initiating an inclusive national dialogue to address emerging threats, particularly those associated with a growing and disaffected youthful population, both broadly and within Gen Z specifically, to safeguard future national security and social stability.
Finance Bill 2024, Gen Z protests, mass psychology, mental wellness, national security
The United Nations in Multipolar Security Governance
This paper critically reassesses the role of the United Nations (UN) in international security governance amid the ongoing transition from a unipolar to a multipolar global order. As power becomes increasingly dispersed and strategic competition intensifies, multilateral institutions face mounting challenges related to effectiveness, legitimacy, and operational relevance. Using the UN as a case study, the article examines how structural rigidity, paralysis in decision-making within the Security Council, and contested interpretations of international law constrain the organisation’s capacity to respond to contemporary security crises. The study employs a qualitative case-based approach, focusing on the Black Sea region as a strategic space where great-power rivalry, regional instability, and hybrid threats intersect. Analysing UN engagement in the conflicts in Ukraine, Georgia, and the former Yugoslavia, the article identifies recurring patterns of veto-induced inaction, normative fragmentation, and limited crisis-management capacity, alongside an increasing reliance on regional and ad hoc security arrangements. The analysis argues that while the UN remains an indispensable forum for diplomatic engagement and normative coordination, its continued relevance in global security governance depends on pragmatic institutional adaptation. For defence and security policymakers, the findings highlight the importance of complementing UN-based multilateralism with flexible regional mechanisms in security environments shaped by multipolar rivalry and hybrid conflict dynamics.
International security governance, multipolarity, institutional adaptation, Black Sea Region, hybrid threats
Legal Pluralism, Maritime Security, and the Blue Economy
Maritime security and sustainable blue economy have, over time, been acknowledged as inseparable pillars of growth, stability and development, yet their administration in inland transboundary waters is under-theorised. It is against this backdrop that this study examines how regional-international legal frameworks shape blue economy governance and maritime security outcomes in the Great Lakes region of Africa. Using comparative qualitative case studies and doctrinal legal analysis of Lakes Victoria, Albert and Tanganyika, this study examines the interaction between global regimes, such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO) conventions, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), including the Sustainable Development Goal 14 and other regional institutions, for example, Africa Union, the Lake Victoria Basin Commission and the East African Community. The study finds that there is a situation of functional legal pluralism marked by normative diffusion without regard to proper enforcement, uneven domestication of legal instruments and institutional overlap. While the available frameworks offer a robust normative architecture, fragmented regional coordination and lack of capacity to implement thwarts their ability to prevent illegal fishing, unlock blue economy potential and enhance maritime security. This study makes a significant scholarly contribution on maritime governance by carrying forward the debates on the governance of the blue economy, maritime security, and inland waters by giving a clear demonstration that the capacity to enforce, legal coherence and regional integration are important variables in translating law into sustainable development outcomes.
Maritime security, sustainable blue economy, legal frameworks, Great Lakes Region, regional, global
Mental Health Support for Security Personnel
Police officers in Kenya operate within a polycrisis environment of terrorism, intercommunal conflict, and violent crime that generates chronic trauma with consequences extending into families, institutions, and communities. This empirical study evaluates Muamko Mpya: Healing the Uniform, a co-designed, healing-centred trauma-informed programme grounded in Healing-centred Peacebuilding (HCPb) — a decolonised, peer-based framework that prioritises community ownership and cultural grounding over clinical expertise. Synthesising findings from three complementary evaluation phases (2018, 2020, 2024) conducted in partnership with Kenya's National Police Service, the study employs quasi-experimental baseline-endline designs using quantitative instruments (Kessler 10 Psychological Distress Scale) and qualitative methods, including Most Significant Change methodology, focus group discussions, and observations of peer-facilitated healing circles. Findings demonstrated statistically significant reductions in psychological distress (p < 0.011), with 67% of Phase 3 officers reporting four or more adverse childhood experiences before service - substantially exceeding international benchmarks and reframing officer mental health as a pre-service developmental challenge. Ninety percent of officers sustained use of emotional regulation tools at ten to eleven months post-intervention. Phase 3 showed trauma awareness improving from 67% to 99%, with peer-trained officers independently facilitating healing circles and achieving outcomes exceeding those of expert-facilitated workshops. By synthesising all three evaluations, this paper documents the programme's development, effectiveness, and scaling potential, advancing evidence at the intersection of psychological health and national security. The study recommends integrating adverse childhood experience-informed education from recruitment, establishing a formal Training of Trainers pathway, and extending the model to Kenya's broader security sector and regionally across Africa. The findings provide evidence for decolonised, non-clinical mental health approaches within security institutions, with implications for national security strategies that position officers' psychological well-being as a foundation for institutional effectiveness and community peacebuilding.
adverse childhood experiences, healing-centred peacebuilding, police officers, trauma-informed practice
Persistent environmental non-compliance in Kenya raises a core governance puzzle: why do firms continue to violate environmental rules despite a comparatively elaborate statutory framework, licensing system, and arsenal of sanctions? This paper argues that the problem cannot be understood through deterrence alone. Drawing on deterrence theory, responsive regulation, compliance-assurance scholarship, Situational Action Theory, and techniques of neutralization, the article reframes corporate environmental offending as a behavioral governance problem produced by the interaction between organizational propensity and regulatory exposure. Methodologically, the study combines a PRISMA-informed review of 62 scholarly and policy sources with qualitative coding of 27 National Environment Tribunal (NET) decisions from 2014 to 2025, which are interpreted alongside major disputes such as the Owino-Uhuru lead-contamination litigation. The analysis shows three recurring patterns. First, enforcement remains predominantly sanction-led, with fines and administrative penalties as the primary responses. Second, adjudicatory and regulatory reasoning rarely probes internal governance systems, executive incentives, or corporate moral reasoning. Third, structured rehabilitative tools such as Corrective Action Plans, environmental probation, and independent compliance verification are largely absent. The paper’s central contribution is the concept of rehabilitative environmental governance: an enforcement architecture that retains deterrence but links sanctions to diagnosis, remediation, executive accountability, and monitored behavioral reform. In the Kenyan context, this model offers a more credible path to reducing regulatory recidivism, strengthening environmental rights protection, and moving environmental enforcement from episodic punishment toward durable compliance.
Environmental compliance, environmental recidivism, rehabilitative governance, situational action theory, Kenya environmental law
Mental Health as Human Security Infrastructure in Kenya
Kenya’s Mental Health Policy (2015–2030) and Action Plan (2021–2025) articulate a progressive, rights-based shift towards universal mental health coverage, yet a profound implementation gap persists. This article argues that the core problem is not policy design but an unscalable clinical model. This biomedical, clinician-centric infrastructure cannot be expanded within Kenya’s fiscal and demographic constraints. With approximately one psychiatrist per 500,000 people and mental health receiving roughly 0.01% of the national health budget, clinical coverage is mathematically impossible. Using Causal Layered Analysis and the Futures Triangle, the paper situates this failure within Kenya’s colonial legacies, ongoing neuro-decolonisation, and competing visions for system transformation. It argues that mental health must be repositioned as a human security asset and that viable reform requires augmenting the clinical-dominant paradigm with distributed receiving systems built on community-initiated, task-shared, and culturally grounded care. The paper makes three contributions: it explains Kenya’s mental health crisis through human security and neuro-decolonisation lenses; reframes reform as building distributed receiving systems rather than simply expanding services; and identifies the current convergence of legal reform, climate stress, and financing shifts as both a risk and an opening for paradigm change.
Causal layered analysis, community-initiated care, human security, mental health, neuro-decolonisation
From Encampment to Conditional Inclusion
Kenya’s refugee regime is experiencing a significant shift from long-standing encampment toward inclusion, driven by the Refugees Act (2021), the Refugees (General) Regulations (2024), and the Shirika Plan (2025–2036). However, the transition remains uneven in practice. This article explores the legal and administrative challenges that continue to restrict refugee integration despite the formal expansion of rights. Using doctrinal legal analysis, policy review, and a comparative examination of three empirical contexts—Dadaab, Kakuma-Kalobeyei, and urban Nairobi—the study investigates how statutory guarantees related to movement, work, documentation, and access to services are influenced by securitization, bureaucratic delays, and fragmented multi-level governance. The article highlights six structural dilemmas: restricted mobility, incompatibility between refugee and labor regimes, security-vetting constraints, weak coordination under devolution, limited access to land and property, and the selective domestication of international norms. It further argues that these barriers have socio-economic and psychosocial impacts, as prolonged displacement, legal uncertainty, and exclusion deepen vulnerability and undermine self-reliance. The findings show that Kenya’s framework reflects inclusion in theory but restriction in practice. By situating Kenya within refugee governance debates, the article demonstrates how legal reforms without administrative coherence perpetuate containment through inclusionary policies.
Refugee integration, Refugee Act 2021, Shirika Plan, legal dilemmas, encampment-to-inclusion, mental health
Community Health Promoters and Mental Health
Community Health Promoters (CHPs) are community members who link formal health facilities and the community. They provide basic preventive, promotive and referral health services in the community. With the increase in mental health-related ailments in the community, there is a need to address the skills gap that may hinder the CHPs from being effective in raising mental health awareness, identifying, and making appropriate referrals. This study sought to determine knowledge levels of mental health disorders among the CHPs and also to establish awareness and accessibility of resources for effective service delivery. This study used a survey research design that employed mixed methods. One hundred eighty Community Health Promoters from Luanda Sub-County in Vihiga County, Kenya, responded. A knowledge, attitude, and practice questionnaire was used for data collection. Quantitative data were coded and entered into the SPSS software version 29 for analysis. Qualitative data were categorised, thematically classified, and presented using appropriate descriptive terms and sections based on areas of concern. Findings indicated that the majority of the respondents had a secondary-level education (65.1%) and had more than 6 years’ experience as CHPs (65%). Only a minority (13%) had a sound understanding of mental health issues. Most (95%) reported that they had encountered a person with mental health challenges, implying that the prevalence of mental health issues in the community could be high. On skills levels in handling mental health challenges, only 40% rated themselves as good or excellent. The study concluded that the majority of CHPs lacked basic knowledge on mental health, interventional skills, and knowledge on referral places for the clients struggling with mental health. There is a need to provide need-based information that will inform intervention programs, making the CHPs more effective in their work and influencing the policy that guides their operations.
Community health promoters, skills levels, psychosocial challenges
Mental Health Vulnerabilities and Women’s Pathways into Crime-Related Radicalisation
Women’s involvement in crime-related radicalisation and extremism increasingly attracted scholarly and policy attention in the era of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) because it challenged traditional assumptions that viewed women only as victims rather than active agents; however, the role of mental health vulnerabilities in shaping women’s pathways into such criminal activities remained insufficiently examined, particularly within urban African contexts. This study examined mental health vulnerabilities influencing women’s pathways to crime-related radicalisation and extremism in Nairobi County, Kenya. The study focused on identifying key psychological, socioeconomic, and cultural factors that heightened women’s susceptibility, as well as proposing evidence-based mental health and psychosocial intervention strategies. Guided by feminist criminology and psychosocial vulnerability frameworks, the study adopted a mixed-methods research approach. Quantitative data were collected through structured questionnaires administered to adult women identified as vulnerable to or affected by crime-related radicalisation and extremism in Nairobi County. Qualitative data were generated through in-depth and key-informant interviews with mental health professionals, community leaders, law enforcement personnel, and civil society actors involved in prevention and rehabilitation efforts. A multistage sampling approach incorporating cluster, purposive, and random sampling. The research instruments comprised semi-structured questionnaires and interview guides. Quantitative data was analysed using inferential statistical techniques, while qualitative data was analysed thematically. Triangulation of qualitative and quantitative data was undertaken to enhance the validity and robustness of the study findings. The study established that socio-economic factors like poverty, unemployment, gender inequality, and marginalisation, combined with restrictive cultural norms, religious indoctrination, and discrimination, further eroded personal agency and justified violence through grievance-based ideologies. The study recommends accessible, gender-sensitive mental health services and trauma-informed interventions that foster resilience via healing, identity reconstruction, social inclusion, and economic empowerment.
Mental health vulnerabilities, women and radicalisation, crime-related extremism, gender-responsive interventions, informal settlements
Nepal has been a frontier of recurring natural disasters, public health issues, and social and political instability for an extended period. While these crises are very often studied separately, their combined impacts have significant implications for community mental health, social cohesion, and national security. This study focuses on the relationship between disaster exposure, conflict-related stressors, and mental health outcomes in Nepal and their impact on community resilience and on wider national security dynamics. The research uses a secondary, mixed-methods empirical approach to synthesise existing evidence from epidemiological surveys, qualitative community research, resilience assessments, and governance reports. Quantitative data on the prevalence of mental health conditions are analysed in addition to qualitative findings on coping mechanisms, social capital, and institutional responses in crisis-affected communities. Findings show that both sudden-onset disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, or landslides, and slow-onset crises, such as conflict trauma, climate-related stressors, and economic shocks, are adding to increasing psychological distress and burden on local mental health systems. However, communities with stronger social networks, well-functioning community health workers, and sustained engagement from non-state actors exhibit high resilience and rapid recovery. The study concludes that the resilience of society and the nation's population strongly links to the community's mental health. It recommends integrating mental health into disaster governance and national security strategy, strengthening primary mental health services, and promoting community-based resilience initiatives as part of Nepal's long-term sustainable development.
Community resilience, disasters, mental health, national security, Social conflict
Widowhood and the Psychological Well-Being of the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) Widows
Widowhood resulting from combat-related deaths among military spouses is a complex experience marked by multiple losses that extend beyond bereavement. Since 2011, the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) have been engaged in combat operations in Somalia under the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) and, currently, the African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS), where numerous fatalities have been reported. Despite the magnitude of these losses, limited empirical research has examined the psychological well-being of widows of KDF soldiers. Guided by the multidimensional grief theory, this study investigated the psychological implications of widowhood among spouses of the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF). A mixed-methods approach was adopted, integrating descriptive survey and phenomenological approaches to capture both quantitative and qualitative dimensions of widowhood. The target population comprised 200 widows of KDF soldiers who died in AMISOM and were based in Nakuru and Uasin Gichu Counties. A sample of 50 widows was selected using cluster and stratified random sampling by the rank of the deceased spouses to ensure representativeness. Data were collected using questionnaires, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were subjected to thematic descriptive analysis. The study revealed that the abrupt and traumatic death of spouses led to profound psychological distress among affected widows, challenging their long-held beliefs and compromising their sense of purpose, personal growth, positive relations with others, and self-acceptance, thereby undermining their psychological well-being. This, in turn, led to elevated anxiety and social isolation, which prolonged their grief. Although the KDF provides certain coping interventions, these measures remain inadequate to address widows’ psychosocial needs comprehensively. The study recommends establishing a structured government support framework to assist families before, during, and after deployment. Such interventions should include pre-deployment family preparation, financial literacy, disability and death planning, and guidance on accessing survivor benefits. Furthermore, specialised child support programmes, including educational assistance, should be prioritised to safeguard the long-term welfare of affected families.
Widowhood, psychological well-being, military families, combat death and coping mechanisms
The Strategy–Practice Gap in African Digital Diplomacy
Digital diplomacy has become an increasingly vital aspect of African statecraft, yet research often attributes it more to visible platforms than to the institutional conditions that enhance their effectiveness. This article introduces the concept of the strategy–practice gap to explain why ambitious digital diplomacy strategies do not always lead to equally effective diplomatic outcomes. The gap is defined as the disconnect between high-level digital diplomatic goals and the organizational capacity needed to implement them routinely. The argument is that this gap is primarily a matter of institutional mediation rather than just technological access. To support this, the study combines public diplomacy theory, which examines strategic communication and national image, with the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which analyses organizational adoption, skills, and enabling conditions at the micro level. Empirically, the article presents a mixed- methods case study of Rwanda, including survey data from 186 respondents across three institutional levels—Ministry of Foreign Affairs headquarters (n = 16), diplomatic missions abroad (n = 30), and diaspora members (n = 140)—along with policy documents and international datasets. Results indicate Rwanda's relative success stems from presidential strategic coherence, data-driven governance, active cyber diplomacy, service-focused digital state capacity, and multilateral norm promotion. However, the study also highlights a persistent strategy–practice gap: although 93.88% of headquarters respondents report strong strategic alignment, the same percentage cite staff expertise shortages as the main implementation barrier, with digital skills falling behind infrastructure development. This research contributes to the underexplored link between digital diplomacy and African international relations, demonstrating that the longevity of digital diplomacy depends more on institutional capacity to translate strategy into practice than simply the existence of digital platforms.
mental health, national security, digital diplomacy, institutional capacity, strategy–practice gap
Media, Technology, and Public Perception of Mental Health and National Security in Kenya
Mental health is an increasingly recognised determinant of societal stability, socio economic development, and national resilience. The World Health Organization identifies mental well-being as essential to individual quality of life, social cohesion, and community engagement (WHO, 2022; Hollis, 2022). In Kenya, policy frameworks such as the Kenya Mental Health Policy (2015–2030) envision a society where mental health is valued, promoted, and protected, free from stigma and discrimination, and grounded in rights-based care systems. This policy aligns with constitutional guarantees that every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, including mental health services (Kenya Mental Health Policy, 2015–2030; Constitution of Kenya, 2010). Despite progressive policy ambitions, mental health remains under-resourced—a challenge highlighted by officials who note that only a tiny fraction of national health budgets is allocated to mental health, contributing to infrastructure and workforce gaps across counties. Meanwhile, suicide remains a significant public health issue, reported to be among the leading causes of death for young people, with estimates of around nine deaths per 100,000 population annually (Bertuccio et al., 2024).
Kenya, media, mental health, national security, technology
Copyright (c) 2026 Kirotwa Sheila Monyenye, Eliud Mwangi (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The ideas of citizenship in uncertain security settings are in flux. The principles of citizenship are under question, not only in terms of their direct bearing on national security but also in their privatization. Kenya is not an exception: the nation-state is becoming increasingly similar to a private corporation, in which citizens are considered to be the owners of shares, depending on how they vote during the general elections. The derogatory term “shareholding” has gained popularity in society. The partisans and coalition that gain power after an election are referred to as the majority shareholders in the government, and the electoral losers are considered to have no or a few shares and, hence, minimal right to the resources and opportunities of the population. Even though the concept of legal citizenship remains universal and protected by the 2010 Constitution, the metaphor of informal shareholding essentially redefines the everyday sense of belonging and rightful access to privileges, generating exclusionary practices in a manner different from those of formal citizenship. The paper discusses the question of why and how the shareholding metaphor has emerged and gained momentum and empirically demonstrates how it functions as a parallel, politically constructed form of hierarchical belonging that privatizes public space and weakens national security. Using purposively selected key informant interviews (including respondents who defend the metaphor as a legitimate political reward and those who dismiss it as harmless rhetoric) and historical analysis of post-independence regimes, the study demonstrates continuity in exclusionary practices from Kenyatta’s administration to the present. Drawing on an expanded literature on hybrid governance, clientelism, neo-patrimonialism and performative belonging, this proposal presents a citizen-centric hybrid model that deliberately integrates formal state institutions with inclusive participatory practices to counter the shareholder narrative and enhance national security.
Belonging, citizenship practices, clientelism, exclusion, hybrid governance, Shareholding metaphor, national security
Armed Non-State Actors in Eastern DRC and Diplomatic Relations in the Great Lakes Region
Armed non-state actors (ANSAs) are one of the most consistent threats to peace, security, and diplomacy in weak states, although their influence on interstate relations is a debated phenomenon. This paper discusses the implications of ANSAs on the diplomatic relations in the Great Lakes Region (GLR), especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the other neighbours, Uganda and Rwanda. Even though the activities of such groups as the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (DFLR), the March 23 Movement (M23), and the Mai-Mai militias are commonly associated with the destabilization of the region, it is not clear how much the actions of these groups cause diplomatic tensions rather than merely being an instrument of the states. The study uses the mixed-methods design, survey data, interviews, and secondary sources to question these dynamics. The results have shown that ANSAs are politically, economically, ethnically, and ideologically oriented, and the economic factors, especially illegal mining and smuggling, have become prevailing. However, not only are their cross-border movement, territorial domination, and violent operations a challenge to the sovereignty, but they also expose deeper structural vulnerabilities in regional governance and immoral trust processes. The regional and international organizations are still involved but limited by a lack of vigorous enforcement and conflicting interests of the member states, which creates doubts about the efficiency of multilateral responses. Civil society may seem to be the most important in the mediation of tensions; however, it does not necessarily participate in formal diplomacy. The conclusion part of the study is terminated with recommendations, which include collaboration of the regions, intelligence sharing, collective military approaches, dialogue with the community and external assistance as possible solutions to sustainable diplomatic relations within the GLR.
Armed Non-State Actors, Eastern DR, Great Lakes Region, regional Diplomacy, Security Cooperation.
Institutional Settings and Forest Conservation in Kenya
The study explored the effects of various gazettements on the conservation of forests in Kenya with cases of Shimba Hills Forest in Kwale County, Marsabit Forest in Marsabit County, and the Hombe Forest in Nyeri County. Multiple gazettement, which here can be defined as two or more forests with two or more institutions having separate policies and mandates, was studied to determine its implications for governance and conservation. The research examined the laws and regulations, formal (enactments and regulations) as well as informal (customs) that affect the conservation of forests in different gazetted forest areas in Kenya. The study utilised a qualitative approach, based on a case study design that was used to collect information by interviewing key informants (policy implementers) and conducting focus groups with the representatives of community-based organizations. The research establishes that the legal disputes between the Kenya Forest Service, the Kenya Wildlife Service, and the Kenya Water Towers Agency are confusing, hence undermining enforcement and decreasing community confidence. Sacred groves, tree taboos and seasonal use rules are still practised, but are in many instances neglected through a formal planning process. The results signify the necessity to harmonise laws and to work closely with other agencies and to formally acknowledge traditional practices, or additional evaluation is needed to comprehend why some respondents mentioned that it would be better to roll back to single gazettement.
Multiple Gazettements, Forest Conservation, Governance, Community Participation, Institutional Coordination
Youth, Digital Communication and National Security in Kenya
This paper explores the intersection of digital communication, youth activism and national security, drawing on the case of the 2024/2025 Gen-Z protests in Kenya. Beginning with protests against the Finance Bill 2024, these protests quickly became the most widespread youth mobilization and protest in Kenyan history since the early 1900s. Social media platforms served as mobilization venues on one side and contest venues on the other. The research builds on the theory of securitization and the notion of networked publics to construct a Digital Securitization Cascade, aiming to understand how viral online communication both inflates and limits states’ responses to dissent. The methodological approach involves a convergent mixed-methods design, combining computational social science and qualitative methods, including network analysis and cross-platform content time-series modelling, with critical discourse analysis of government statements, media attention and 25 semi-structured interviews with activists, journalists, and policymakers. Results indicate that surges in online presence were powerful predictors of securitizing rhetoric by state actors, and viral transmission of visual representations of police violence created international suspicion, which softened coercive state strategies. At the same time, misinformation and disinformation also made it difficult to trust any side of the protesters or the government, provoking further conflict online. It contributes in 3 ways: theoretically, the study is a reconceptualization of securitization as a digitally networked public contest into a large-scale form of mobilization; empirically, the study presents a rare example of a large-scale mobilization of youth in East Africa; and methodologically, the study is a multimodal approach to the study of protest communication in the Global South. The article concludes by offering policy recommendations on the governance of platforms, transparency in the security sector and youth empowerment in democratic processes.
Digital protests, misinformation, networked publics, securitisation, social media, youth activism
Kenya’s Territorial Disputes and Security Implications
Territorial conflicts have in invariably characterized Kenya’s interaction with her neighbouring countries. Over time, these conflicts have threatened national security, economic stability and international relations of the country with her neighbours. These disputes are based on the colonial-era demarcations of boundaries, historical claims and the struggle over the natural resources that have some of the most prominent cases of the Elemi Triangle, the Migingo Island, the Kenya-Somalia maritime boundary and the Kenya-Tanzania border. This research paper used a convergent mixed-method design to investigate the nature and consequences of these controversies. The secondary and primary sources were used to collect data. The analysis involved the analysis of archival materials, government reports, international court documents, and regional treaties; to be more specific, a purposive sample of forty-five (45) official documents and reports created by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the African Union, and the International Court of Justice. Further, twelve (12) professional interviews were conducted to triangulate the findings, and these were conducted with the diplomats, security analysts, and scholars in the field of regional affairs. As has been discussed, unresolved issues on the territories have deteriorated border insecurity and disrupted the cross-border trade and the relationship between the states. Settlements living in the contentious frontiers are continuously displaced, engage in propaganda of resources, and have restricted access to economic opportunities. However, peaceful solutions and collaboration exist through such multilateral systems as the East Africa Community (EAC), the African Union (AU) and the international adjudicatory organs such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The study suggests improved diplomatic bargaining, adherence to international determinations, and shared assistance programs. A well-coordinated border governance strategy that involves community participation, diplomacy, and security is the key to having regional stability, economic integration, and sustainable development.
Border Disputes, Elemi Triangle, Kenya-Somalia Conflict, Migingo Island, Territorial Integrity
Climate change mitigation strategies have long focused on the idea of carbon sequestration and did not consider the opportunities of a greater range of forest management. The article analysed how Participatory Forest Management (PFM) could be used to address climate change and to ensure sustainable forest management in the Karura Forest in Kenya. It explored how PFM can be used to facilitate the carbon sequestration process, improve biodiversity, livelihoods and empower communities. The study employed a mixed-methods design, incorporating surveys conducted among community forest association members, key informants, focus group discussions (FGDs), and an analysis of changes in forest cover. The sample size (n = 209) employed by the study matched that of the Conservationists in the Friends of Karura Community Forest Association (FKCFA), Resident Association Community Leaders and Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies. PFM has been attributed to the increase in carbon captured in forests. The forests also play a significant role in mitigating the effects of climate change, which is one of the most pressing issues in the world, as they absorb greenhouse gases. The Karura Forest Ecosystem is situated near Nairobi County in Kenya, and it is threatened by the unsustainable use of resources and the pressure of population growth. PFM, which entails the participation of local communities in forest management, has been a solution to consider. PFM has vast potential, and its potential in enhancing the capability of Karura Forest to address climate change issues is being considered. The paper discusses the effects of PFM on climate change mitigation programs, drawing on theoretical factors from the Common-Pool-Resource theory and environmental governance principles. The findings demonstrate that PFM has a positive impact on various fronts, including forest restoration, enhanced carbon capture, effective forest management, local empowerment and stewardship, and biodiversity protection. Results show that PFM in Karura Forest has increased carbon stocks, restored biodiversity, and enabled local communities by utilizing sustainable resources and generating income. The paper emphasizes that PFM is an all-inclusive approach that extends beyond carbon sequestration to support the goals of sustainable development.
climate change mitigation and effects, participatory forest management
Do governance-focused solutions supplement military activities in the successful management of hybrid security threats outside the battlefield in Kenya, as well as within international and regional approaches? The 21st century has witnessed a paradigm shift in war strategies, where the conventional approach to warfare through the military is no longer applicable but rather asymmetrical warfare that defies borders. Almost all non-state actors have evolved to become more complex, dynamic, uncertain, and sophisticated, employing a combination of conventional, irregular, and kinetic tactics. Such hybrid types of insecurity, including terrorism, cybercrime, climate-related insecurity, organized transnational crime, and disinformation campaigns, reveal the shortcomings of solely military actions. This paper proposes that a governance-based approach, with an emphasis on institutional legitimacy, human security, socio-economic resilience, and inclusive governance, is the required path forward to supplement traditional brutal power tactics by shifting the focus away from guns, which can endanger the stability of the state, security, and sustainability. This paper examines hybrid threat factors in the global, regional, and Kenyan contexts, drawing on the Human Security Theory, through qualitative desktop research that utilizes academic articles, policy reports, and global reports. The paper confirms that the best responses to hybrid warfare are balanced, striking a balance between the use of force and governance through the capacity of the security sector, as well as the reform of governance, community involvement, and empowerment. The results highlight the role of the Human Security paradigm in diagnosing and responding to hybrid threats in Kenya, where governance failures are actively exploited.
Governance, Hybrid security threats, Human Security Theory, Human Security, Securitisation.
Logic Behind Track Two Diplomacy in Managing Intractable Conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo
The dynamics and causes of conflicts in the twenty-first century are many and multifaceted. The primary objective of this research was to investigate the rationale behind Track Two diplomacy in resolving intractable conflicts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The research design was based on Structural Functionalism theory and had a case study research design. The sample population was those experts in foreign relations, security, and development. Qualitative responses were collected through the purposive sampling method, providing more in-depth information and more accurate research results. A key informant interview guide was used to gather primary data, and books, journals, and periodicals were used to acquire secondary data. The research conclusion is provided in the form of a narrative. The study determined that Track Two diplomacy offered an avenue of communication other than the official one, which entails unofficial dialogue or informal communication that may prove vital in managing an intractable conflict, as was experienced in the Congo. This paper, therefore, concludes that there is a Track Two diplomacy option that can be employed to deal with intractable conflicts in the Ituri Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. This outcome is only possible when some particular problems are resolved, like finding adequate funds and organizing the Track Two projects into the formal peace frameworks. In this study, the researcher suggests that the interested parties should endow Track Two diplomacy, should be adequately resourced, should be aligned with formal diplomacy, and should also be sensitive to matters of local context to be effective in dealing with intractable conflicts.
Peacebuilding, Track Two Diplomacy, Ituri Province, Intractable Conflicts
Effect of Kenya’s External Debt Sustainability on Militarisation and Crime Rate in Kenya (1993-2023)
In this paper, the complex relationship between external debt sustainability and national security outcomes in Kenya is addressed through an analysis of indicators of militarisation and crime rates. The study examines the direct and indirect effects of debt sustainability on security outcomes from 1993 to 2023, focusing on militarisation and from 2004 to 2023, on crime rates, using Vector Autoregressive (VAR) models with time series data. Diagnostic tests, such as the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test, KPSS test, Johansen cointegration analysis, and multiple lag selection criteria, were used to pre-estimate the absence of long-term relationships among the variables, thereby justifying the use of the VAR method over alternative models. The findings indicate complicated interactions: although the external debt sustainability does not have a direct impact of any importance on existing military spending or the crime rate, there are crucial feedbacks via socio-economic mediators. Historical military expenditure has a positive impact on external debt (14.79, p < 0.10), indicating that security investments are counterintuitive to fiscal sustainability. Urbanisation negatively impacts debt sustainability (-594.36, p < 0.05), indicating demographic pressures on fiscal resources. Research indicates that important debt-to-GDP levels are between 55% and 60%, at which security effects become increasingly evident in a non-linear manner. Combined with the results, the sustainability of debt in the area is the primary factor affecting security through indirect channels (including unemployment, urbanisation and budgeting restrictions), rather than having direct budget implications. Policy recommendations, such as the institution of integrated debt-security monitoring tools, targeted intervention in high-risk cities, and flexible military budget preparation that takes into account fiscal sustainability levels, can be suggested. The study can help maximise the knowledge of the impacts of fiscal constraints spilling over to security lapses in developing economies.
External debt sustainability, national security, military expenditure, crime rate
Proliferation of Drone Technology and Its Implications on National Security Management in Kenya
The development of drone technology, typically used in national security management, is both a challenge and an opportunity for Kenya. This study examines this intersection and the dynamic relationship between drone technology, legal framework and local security infrastructure through the lens of systems theory. A pragmatic paradigm was used in the research, and it involved the use of a convergent parallel design. Key informant interviews and questionnaires were used to collect data from 155 respondents and conduct data analysis with the help of descriptive statistics and content analysis. Discussing the availability of drones, 58.3% of the answers indicated that drones were available in the market to serve diverse purposes, be it civilian or in connection with security. Research data revealed lapses in the enforcement of the rules as the drones were being used to conduct surveillance and drug delivery. Furthermore, 96.8% of the respondents said that government security organizations employed drones in their operations, underlining the dual nature of this technology. Given the dual-use nature of drone technology, this paper calls for the need to develop an all-inclusive national drone policy for Kenya to guide the acquisition and utilization of drones. It also calls for the need for better coordination among the stakeholders and capacity building in the security agencies to better control the use of technology, especially by the public, to contribute to the improvement of national security. The results highlight the importance of adaptive governance for responding to the changing problems that technology presents to national security.
air power, drone, dual-use technology, security management, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Disinformation as a threat to Kenya’s National Security in the Contemporary Information Environment
21st-century disinformation has become a significantly under-reported issue, even though the security risks it may create to the international system are very severe. This situation has been worsened by the introduction of social media sites, which are usually used to control opinion, perception, and behaviour. This paper investigates disinformation in Kenya and the potential security threats that the phenomenon presents to the country. It is based on the agenda-setting theory and the application of the qualitative research method, which involves non-numeric information. Primary data was complemented with secondary data to strengthen the inquiry and foster richer data collection and analyses. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with subject matter experts, including security officials, scholars, communication experts, and Kenyan citizens who are active users of the social media websites. The primary and secondary data were triangulated in the analysis, revealing that the disinformation on social media has been used to the benefit of radical activists and anti-government actors in Kenya. This form of disinformation is detrimental to the core components of human security, which are freedom from fear and freedom from want. This action, in effect, compromises the security, integrity, and welfare of the citizens. As a result, the paper proposes a review and improvement of government communication policies and invests in new and better technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence, to combat disinformation.
Disinformation, Governance, Misinformation, Propaganda, Security
The Role of Military Quick Impact Projects in the Enhancement of Human Security
In post-war or conflict-ridden areas, the distinction between a military approach and a humanitarian approach is becoming increasingly ambiguous. This paper examines how Military Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) used in the Armed Forces of Nigeria (AFN) have helped to improve human security in the North-Eastern part of Nigeria, which is devastated by the insurgency of the Boko Haram. Although QIPs are advocated as a winning-of-hearts-and-minds approach in counterinsurgency (COIN) doctrine, their effectiveness in providing sustainable human security results is controversial. Based on a mixed-methods approach, with a survey of 422 stakeholders and in-depth interviews, this study evaluates QIPs in a seven-dimensional human security framework. Results show that QIPs have already attained significant short-term returns on rebuilding critical infrastructure, delivering first-line services and building initial trust. Their long-term effectiveness is, however, severely compromised by structural flaws, such as a lack of community ownership, poor interagency coordination, poor monitoring and evaluation and a short-term mismatch with the long-term development planning. Theoretically, the paper uses the Public Goods Theory (PGT) to reveal that although QIPs are expected to deliver public goods such as infrastructure, the lack of inclusivity and interagency rivalry makes it highly vulnerable in the real world due to politicized implementation and sustainability issues. The research concludes that in order to enable the QIPs to go beyond the level of utility within a tactical approach and to make a significant contribution to human security, a paradigm shift to a more collaborative, community-based and strategically patient approach is necessary. Suggestions are provided regarding including QIPs in a more civilian-based framework of stabilization.
Quick Impact Projects (QIPs), Human Security, Counterinsurgency, Public Goods Theory
East African Community Regional Force and Southern African Development Community Mission in Northern Mozambique in enhancing Security in the Regions
The study sought to analyse the contributions of the East African Community Regional Force (EACRF) and the Southern African Development Community Mission (SAMIM) to security in the Great Lakes and Southern Africa regions, respectively. The neoliberalism theory underpinned the study. This study adopted a comparative case study design embedded within a mixed-methods research approach. A comparative case study design was applied to enable an in-depth, contextually grounded analysis of multiple PSOs across Africa, highlighting both convergences and divergences in performance. The target population for the study included military personnel directly and indirectly involved with the EACRF and SAMIM missions, non-military personnel (such as civilian police), local government officials, community leaders and representatives in the countries of operations of the two missions, subject matter experts, scholars and representatives from international and national NGOs. Through purposive sampling, a sample of 85 participants was obtained using the Cochran Formula. Content analysis was used to analyse secondary data, while quantitative data was examined using descriptive statistics. The conclusions of the study were that both EACRF and SAMIM contributed significantly to peace and security in the region, but their overall contribution was limited because of systemic issues. For instance, EACRF did not make considerable progress in the achievement of its objectives largely due to logistical challenges and political differences, its short lifespan notwithstanding. On the other hand, SAMIM achieved greater security gains due to its longer presence. Both missions exhibited quantifiable but contentious roles in the security of the region, with the views of the stakeholders strongly divided. EACRF, with its community-centric approach, enhanced local reconciliation, conflict resolution, and the strengthening of governance. However, it faced considerable scepticism from the public. In contrast, the multidimensional approach of SAMIM that integrates the efforts in the area of economic opportunities, counterinsurgency, and governance reform has had a more balanced yet more nuanced impact profile. Although the progress of regional cooperation is still relatively modest, both missions suggest that greater success in the long run will probably be pegged on additional integration of economic development initiatives to work on the root causes of disparities and maintain stability.
East African Community Regional Force, Southern African Development Community Mission, Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo, Peace Support Operations