National Security: A Journal of the National Defence University-Kenya
The National Security journal is a peer-reviewed academic publication of the National Defence University–Kenya (NDU-K), published under the auspices of the Centre for Security and Strategic Studies. Volume 1, Issue 1 was launched on 1st April 2023. It provides a scholarly platform for rigorous analysis of national, regional, and international security issues. The journal’s scope is deliberately broad and interdisciplinary: it encompasses traditional defence and strategic studies as well as peace and conflict resolution, governance and development, diplomacy, and emerging domains of security (e.g., cybersecurity, technology, and human security). The Journal aims to disseminate vibrant, promising, and multidisciplinary cutting-edge research in the broad field of security, development, strategy, national interest, and policy. Each issue is thematic, reflecting current challenges. By bridging theoretical scholarship and policy relevance, the journal seeks to deepen evidence-based dialogue on defence and security.
The ideas of citizenship in uncertain security settings are in flux. The principles of citizenship are under question, not only in terms of their direct bearing on national security but also in their privatization. Kenya is not an exception: the nation-state is becoming increasingly similar to a private corporation, in which citizens are considered to be the owners of shares, depending on how they vote during the general elections. The derogatory term “shareholding” has gained popularity in society. The partisans and coalition that gain power after an election are referred to as the majority shareholders in the government, and the electoral losers are considered to have no or a few shares and, hence, minimal right to the resources and opportunities of the population. Even though the concept of legal citizenship remains universal and protected by the 2010 Constitution, the metaphor of informal shareholding essentially redefines the everyday sense of belonging and rightful access to privileges, generating exclusionary practices in a manner different from those of formal citizenship. The paper discusses the question of why and how the shareholding metaphor has emerged and gained momentum and empirically demonstrates how it functions as a parallel, politically constructed form of hierarchical belonging that privatizes public space and weakens national security. Using purposively selected key informant interviews (including respondents who defend the metaphor as a legitimate political reward and those who dismiss it as harmless rhetoric) and historical analysis of post-independence regimes, the study demonstrates continuity in exclusionary practices from Kenyatta’s administration to the present. Drawing on an expanded literature on hybrid governance, clientelism, neo-patrimonialism and performative belonging, this proposal presents a citizen-centric hybrid model that deliberately integrates formal state institutions with inclusive participatory practices to counter the shareholder narrative and enhance national security.
Belonging, citizenship practices, clientelism, exclusion, hybrid governance, Shareholding metaphor, national security
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Armed Non-State Actors in Eastern DRC and Diplomatic Relations in the Great Lakes Region
Armed non-state actors (ANSAs) are one of the most consistent threats to peace, security, and diplomacy in weak states, although their influence on interstate relations is a debated phenomenon. This paper discusses the implications of ANSAs on the diplomatic relations in the Great Lakes Region (GLR), especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the other neighbours, Uganda and Rwanda. Even though the activities of such groups as the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (DFLR), the March 23 Movement (M23), and the Mai-Mai militias are commonly associated with the destabilization of the region, it is not clear how much the actions of these groups cause diplomatic tensions rather than merely being an instrument of the states. The study uses the mixed-methods design, survey data, interviews, and secondary sources to question these dynamics. The results have shown that ANSAs are politically, economically, ethnically, and ideologically oriented, and the economic factors, especially illegal mining and smuggling, have become prevailing. However, not only are their cross-border movement, territorial domination, and violent operations a challenge to the sovereignty, but they also expose deeper structural vulnerabilities in regional governance and immoral trust processes. The regional and international organizations are still involved but limited by a lack of vigorous enforcement and conflicting interests of the member states, which creates doubts about the efficiency of multilateral responses. Civil society may seem to be the most important in the mediation of tensions; however, it does not necessarily participate in formal diplomacy. The conclusion part of the study is terminated with recommendations, which include collaboration of the regions, intelligence sharing, collective military approaches, dialogue with the community and external assistance as possible solutions to sustainable diplomatic relations within the GLR.
Armed Non-State Actors, Eastern DR, Great Lakes Region, regional Diplomacy, Security Cooperation.
Institutional Settings and Forest Conservation in Kenya
The study explored the effects of various gazettements on the conservation of forests in Kenya with cases of Shimba Hills Forest in Kwale County, Marsabit Forest in Marsabit County, and the Hombe Forest in Nyeri County. Multiple gazettement, which here can be defined as two or more forests with two or more institutions having separate policies and mandates, was studied to determine its implications for governance and conservation. The research examined the laws and regulations, formal (enactments and regulations) as well as informal (customs) that affect the conservation of forests in different gazetted forest areas in Kenya. The study utilised a qualitative approach, based on a case study design that was used to collect information by interviewing key informants (policy implementers) and conducting focus groups with the representatives of community-based organizations. The research establishes that the legal disputes between the Kenya Forest Service, the Kenya Wildlife Service, and the Kenya Water Towers Agency are confusing, hence undermining enforcement and decreasing community confidence. Sacred groves, tree taboos and seasonal use rules are still practised, but are in many instances neglected through a formal planning process. The results signify the necessity to harmonise laws and to work closely with other agencies and to formally acknowledge traditional practices, or additional evaluation is needed to comprehend why some respondents mentioned that it would be better to roll back to single gazettement.
Multiple Gazettements, Forest Conservation, Governance, Community Participation, Institutional Coordination
Youth, Digital Communication and National Security in Kenya
This paper explores the intersection of digital communication, youth activism and national security, drawing on the case of the 2024/2025 Gen-Z protests in Kenya. Beginning with protests against the Finance Bill 2024, these protests quickly became the most widespread youth mobilization and protest in Kenyan history since the early 1900s. Social media platforms served as mobilization venues on one side and contest venues on the other. The research builds on the theory of securitization and the notion of networked publics to construct a Digital Securitization Cascade, aiming to understand how viral online communication both inflates and limits states’ responses to dissent. The methodological approach involves a convergent mixed-methods design, combining computational social science and qualitative methods, including network analysis and cross-platform content time-series modelling, with critical discourse analysis of government statements, media attention and 25 semi-structured interviews with activists, journalists, and policymakers. Results indicate that surges in online presence were powerful predictors of securitizing rhetoric by state actors, and viral transmission of visual representations of police violence created international suspicion, which softened coercive state strategies. At the same time, misinformation and disinformation also made it difficult to trust any side of the protesters or the government, provoking further conflict online. It contributes in 3 ways: theoretically, the study is a reconceptualization of securitization as a digitally networked public contest into a large-scale form of mobilization; empirically, the study presents a rare example of a large-scale mobilization of youth in East Africa; and methodologically, the study is a multimodal approach to the study of protest communication in the Global South. The article concludes by offering policy recommendations on the governance of platforms, transparency in the security sector and youth empowerment in democratic processes.
Digital protests, misinformation, networked publics, securitisation, social media, youth activism
Kenya’s Territorial Disputes and Security Implications
Territorial conflicts have in invariably characterized Kenya’s interaction with her neighbouring countries. Over time, these conflicts have threatened national security, economic stability and international relations of the country with her neighbours. These disputes are based on the colonial-era demarcations of boundaries, historical claims and the struggle over the natural resources that have some of the most prominent cases of the Elemi Triangle, the Migingo Island, the Kenya-Somalia maritime boundary and the Kenya-Tanzania border. This research paper used a convergent mixed-method design to investigate the nature and consequences of these controversies. The secondary and primary sources were used to collect data. The analysis involved the analysis of archival materials, government reports, international court documents, and regional treaties; to be more specific, a purposive sample of forty-five (45) official documents and reports created by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the African Union, and the International Court of Justice. Further, twelve (12) professional interviews were conducted to triangulate the findings, and these were conducted with the diplomats, security analysts, and scholars in the field of regional affairs. As has been discussed, unresolved issues on the territories have deteriorated border insecurity and disrupted the cross-border trade and the relationship between the states. Settlements living in the contentious frontiers are continuously displaced, engage in propaganda of resources, and have restricted access to economic opportunities. However, peaceful solutions and collaboration exist through such multilateral systems as the East Africa Community (EAC), the African Union (AU) and the international adjudicatory organs such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The study suggests improved diplomatic bargaining, adherence to international determinations, and shared assistance programs. A well-coordinated border governance strategy that involves community participation, diplomacy, and security is the key to having regional stability, economic integration, and sustainable development.
Border Disputes, Elemi Triangle, Kenya-Somalia Conflict, Migingo Island, Territorial Integrity
Climate change mitigation strategies have long focused on the idea of carbon sequestration and did not consider the opportunities of a greater range of forest management. The article analysed how Participatory Forest Management (PFM) could be used to address climate change and to ensure sustainable forest management in the Karura Forest in Kenya. It explored how PFM can be used to facilitate the carbon sequestration process, improve biodiversity, livelihoods and empower communities. The study employed a mixed-methods design, incorporating surveys conducted among community forest association members, key informants, focus group discussions (FGDs), and an analysis of changes in forest cover. The sample size (n = 209) employed by the study matched that of the Conservationists in the Friends of Karura Community Forest Association (FKCFA), Resident Association Community Leaders and Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies. PFM has been attributed to the increase in carbon captured in forests. The forests also play a significant role in mitigating the effects of climate change, which is one of the most pressing issues in the world, as they absorb greenhouse gases. The Karura Forest Ecosystem is situated near Nairobi County in Kenya, and it is threatened by the unsustainable use of resources and the pressure of population growth. PFM, which entails the participation of local communities in forest management, has been a solution to consider. PFM has vast potential, and its potential in enhancing the capability of Karura Forest to address climate change issues is being considered. The paper discusses the effects of PFM on climate change mitigation programs, drawing on theoretical factors from the Common-Pool-Resource theory and environmental governance principles. The findings demonstrate that PFM has a positive impact on various fronts, including forest restoration, enhanced carbon capture, effective forest management, local empowerment and stewardship, and biodiversity protection. Results show that PFM in Karura Forest has increased carbon stocks, restored biodiversity, and enabled local communities by utilizing sustainable resources and generating income. The paper emphasizes that PFM is an all-inclusive approach that extends beyond carbon sequestration to support the goals of sustainable development.
climate change mitigation and effects, participatory forest management
Do governance-focused solutions supplement military activities in the successful management of hybrid security threats outside the battlefield in Kenya, as well as within international and regional approaches? The 21st century has witnessed a paradigm shift in war strategies, where the conventional approach to warfare through the military is no longer applicable but rather asymmetrical warfare that defies borders. Almost all non-state actors have evolved to become more complex, dynamic, uncertain, and sophisticated, employing a combination of conventional, irregular, and kinetic tactics. Such hybrid types of insecurity, including terrorism, cybercrime, climate-related insecurity, organized transnational crime, and disinformation campaigns, reveal the shortcomings of solely military actions. This paper proposes that a governance-based approach, with an emphasis on institutional legitimacy, human security, socio-economic resilience, and inclusive governance, is the required path forward to supplement traditional brutal power tactics by shifting the focus away from guns, which can endanger the stability of the state, security, and sustainability. This paper examines hybrid threat factors in the global, regional, and Kenyan contexts, drawing on the Human Security Theory, through qualitative desktop research that utilizes academic articles, policy reports, and global reports. The paper confirms that the best responses to hybrid warfare are balanced, striking a balance between the use of force and governance through the capacity of the security sector, as well as the reform of governance, community involvement, and empowerment. The results highlight the role of the Human Security paradigm in diagnosing and responding to hybrid threats in Kenya, where governance failures are actively exploited.
Governance, Hybrid security threats, Human Security Theory, Human Security, Securitisation.
Logic Behind Track Two Diplomacy in Managing Intractable Conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo
The dynamics and causes of conflicts in the twenty-first century are many and multifaceted. The primary objective of this research was to investigate the rationale behind Track Two diplomacy in resolving intractable conflicts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The research design was based on Structural Functionalism theory and had a case study research design. The sample population was those experts in foreign relations, security, and development. Qualitative responses were collected through the purposive sampling method, providing more in-depth information and more accurate research results. A key informant interview guide was used to gather primary data, and books, journals, and periodicals were used to acquire secondary data. The research conclusion is provided in the form of a narrative. The study determined that Track Two diplomacy offered an avenue of communication other than the official one, which entails unofficial dialogue or informal communication that may prove vital in managing an intractable conflict, as was experienced in the Congo. This paper, therefore, concludes that there is a Track Two diplomacy option that can be employed to deal with intractable conflicts in the Ituri Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. This outcome is only possible when some particular problems are resolved, like finding adequate funds and organizing the Track Two projects into the formal peace frameworks. In this study, the researcher suggests that the interested parties should endow Track Two diplomacy, should be adequately resourced, should be aligned with formal diplomacy, and should also be sensitive to matters of local context to be effective in dealing with intractable conflicts.
Peacebuilding, Track Two Diplomacy, Ituri Province, Intractable Conflicts
Effect of Kenya’s External Debt Sustainability on Militarisation and Crime Rate in Kenya (1993-2023)
In this paper, the complex relationship between external debt sustainability and national security outcomes in Kenya is addressed through an analysis of indicators of militarisation and crime rates. The study examines the direct and indirect effects of debt sustainability on security outcomes from 1993 to 2023, focusing on militarisation and from 2004 to 2023, on crime rates, using Vector Autoregressive (VAR) models with time series data. Diagnostic tests, such as the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test, KPSS test, Johansen cointegration analysis, and multiple lag selection criteria, were used to pre-estimate the absence of long-term relationships among the variables, thereby justifying the use of the VAR method over alternative models. The findings indicate complicated interactions: although the external debt sustainability does not have a direct impact of any importance on existing military spending or the crime rate, there are crucial feedbacks via socio-economic mediators. Historical military expenditure has a positive impact on external debt (14.79, p < 0.10), indicating that security investments are counterintuitive to fiscal sustainability. Urbanisation negatively impacts debt sustainability (-594.36, p < 0.05), indicating demographic pressures on fiscal resources. Research indicates that important debt-to-GDP levels are between 55% and 60%, at which security effects become increasingly evident in a non-linear manner. Combined with the results, the sustainability of debt in the area is the primary factor affecting security through indirect channels (including unemployment, urbanisation and budgeting restrictions), rather than having direct budget implications. Policy recommendations, such as the institution of integrated debt-security monitoring tools, targeted intervention in high-risk cities, and flexible military budget preparation that takes into account fiscal sustainability levels, can be suggested. The study can help maximise the knowledge of the impacts of fiscal constraints spilling over to security lapses in developing economies.
External debt sustainability, national security, military expenditure, crime rate
Proliferation of Drone Technology and Its Implications on National Security Management in Kenya
The development of drone technology, typically used in national security management, is both a challenge and an opportunity for Kenya. This study examines this intersection and the dynamic relationship between drone technology, legal framework and local security infrastructure through the lens of systems theory. A pragmatic paradigm was used in the research, and it involved the use of a convergent parallel design. Key informant interviews and questionnaires were used to collect data from 155 respondents and conduct data analysis with the help of descriptive statistics and content analysis. Discussing the availability of drones, 58.3% of the answers indicated that drones were available in the market to serve diverse purposes, be it civilian or in connection with security. Research data revealed lapses in the enforcement of the rules as the drones were being used to conduct surveillance and drug delivery. Furthermore, 96.8% of the respondents said that government security organizations employed drones in their operations, underlining the dual nature of this technology. Given the dual-use nature of drone technology, this paper calls for the need to develop an all-inclusive national drone policy for Kenya to guide the acquisition and utilization of drones. It also calls for the need for better coordination among the stakeholders and capacity building in the security agencies to better control the use of technology, especially by the public, to contribute to the improvement of national security. The results highlight the importance of adaptive governance for responding to the changing problems that technology presents to national security.
air power, drone, dual-use technology, security management, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Disinformation as a threat to Kenya’s National Security in the Contemporary Information Environment
21st-century disinformation has become a significantly under-reported issue, even though the security risks it may create to the international system are very severe. This situation has been worsened by the introduction of social media sites, which are usually used to control opinion, perception, and behaviour. This paper investigates disinformation in Kenya and the potential security threats that the phenomenon presents to the country. It is based on the agenda-setting theory and the application of the qualitative research method, which involves non-numeric information. Primary data was complemented with secondary data to strengthen the inquiry and foster richer data collection and analyses. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with subject matter experts, including security officials, scholars, communication experts, and Kenyan citizens who are active users of the social media websites. The primary and secondary data were triangulated in the analysis, revealing that the disinformation on social media has been used to the benefit of radical activists and anti-government actors in Kenya. This form of disinformation is detrimental to the core components of human security, which are freedom from fear and freedom from want. This action, in effect, compromises the security, integrity, and welfare of the citizens. As a result, the paper proposes a review and improvement of government communication policies and invests in new and better technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence, to combat disinformation.
Disinformation, Governance, Misinformation, Propaganda, Security
The Role of Military Quick Impact Projects in the Enhancement of Human Security
In post-war or conflict-ridden areas, the distinction between a military approach and a humanitarian approach is becoming increasingly ambiguous. This paper examines how Military Quick Impact Projects (QIPs) used in the Armed Forces of Nigeria (AFN) have helped to improve human security in the North-Eastern part of Nigeria, which is devastated by the insurgency of the Boko Haram. Although QIPs are advocated as a winning-of-hearts-and-minds approach in counterinsurgency (COIN) doctrine, their effectiveness in providing sustainable human security results is controversial. Based on a mixed-methods approach, with a survey of 422 stakeholders and in-depth interviews, this study evaluates QIPs in a seven-dimensional human security framework. Results show that QIPs have already attained significant short-term returns on rebuilding critical infrastructure, delivering first-line services and building initial trust. Their long-term effectiveness is, however, severely compromised by structural flaws, such as a lack of community ownership, poor interagency coordination, poor monitoring and evaluation and a short-term mismatch with the long-term development planning. Theoretically, the paper uses the Public Goods Theory (PGT) to reveal that although QIPs are expected to deliver public goods such as infrastructure, the lack of inclusivity and interagency rivalry makes it highly vulnerable in the real world due to politicized implementation and sustainability issues. The research concludes that in order to enable the QIPs to go beyond the level of utility within a tactical approach and to make a significant contribution to human security, a paradigm shift to a more collaborative, community-based and strategically patient approach is necessary. Suggestions are provided regarding including QIPs in a more civilian-based framework of stabilization.
Quick Impact Projects (QIPs), Human Security, Counterinsurgency, Public Goods Theory
East African Community Regional Force and Southern African Development Community Mission in Northern Mozambique in enhancing Security in the Regions
The study sought to analyse the contributions of the East African Community Regional Force (EACRF) and the Southern African Development Community Mission (SAMIM) to security in the Great Lakes and Southern Africa regions, respectively. The neoliberalism theory underpinned the study. This study adopted a comparative case study design embedded within a mixed-methods research approach. A comparative case study design was applied to enable an in-depth, contextually grounded analysis of multiple PSOs across Africa, highlighting both convergences and divergences in performance. The target population for the study included military personnel directly and indirectly involved with the EACRF and SAMIM missions, non-military personnel (such as civilian police), local government officials, community leaders and representatives in the countries of operations of the two missions, subject matter experts, scholars and representatives from international and national NGOs. Through purposive sampling, a sample of 85 participants was obtained using the Cochran Formula. Content analysis was used to analyse secondary data, while quantitative data was examined using descriptive statistics. The conclusions of the study were that both EACRF and SAMIM contributed significantly to peace and security in the region, but their overall contribution was limited because of systemic issues. For instance, EACRF did not make considerable progress in the achievement of its objectives largely due to logistical challenges and political differences, its short lifespan notwithstanding. On the other hand, SAMIM achieved greater security gains due to its longer presence. Both missions exhibited quantifiable but contentious roles in the security of the region, with the views of the stakeholders strongly divided. EACRF, with its community-centric approach, enhanced local reconciliation, conflict resolution, and the strengthening of governance. However, it faced considerable scepticism from the public. In contrast, the multidimensional approach of SAMIM that integrates the efforts in the area of economic opportunities, counterinsurgency, and governance reform has had a more balanced yet more nuanced impact profile. Although the progress of regional cooperation is still relatively modest, both missions suggest that greater success in the long run will probably be pegged on additional integration of economic development initiatives to work on the root causes of disparities and maintain stability.
East African Community Regional Force, Southern African Development Community Mission, Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo, Peace Support Operations
The Influence of County Government Agricultural Infrastructure Development on Food Security in Trans Nzoia East, Kenya
Food security is a prominent concern in Kenya, characterised by a multifaceted interplay of factors that hinder the consistent availability and accessibility of sufficient, secure, and nourishing food for the nation's population. This study examines the impact of county government infrastructure development on food security, specifically food accessibility and availability, in Trans Nzoia East. The study was anchored on Schultz's Schultzian Theory of Traditional Agriculture Transformation. The study employed a descriptive research design incorporating a mixed-methodology approach. The research used both primary data and secondary data. The results show that county government infrastructural initiatives have had a significant positive effect on food security in Trans Nzoia East. Subsidised input programs, such as fertilisers and seeds, have translated into high agricultural production rates with greater household food availability. Additionally, capacity-building programs and extension services have helped increase farmers' knowledge and skills to adopt modern agriculture practices, generating higher yields. Nevertheless, obstacles like a lack of adequate infrastructure, inability to reach markets, and governance have continued to undermine the full realisation of benefits. Although infrastructure development is widely acknowledged as one of the main enablers of economic growth and development, its role in agricultural productivity with respect to food security outcomes remains mostly neglected. This research emphasises that functional infrastructure consisting of road networks, storage facilities, and processing hubs is vital for value chain support and reducing the time spent accessing markets.
Food security, United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, County government, infrastructure development
This paper critically explores the evolving definitions, discursive constructions, and strategic responses to contemporary terrorism in Kenya. Drawing on the securitisation theory and critical terrorism studies, we interrogate how terrorism is framed by state actors, often in ways that marginalise Kenya’s vulnerable populations. We propose a context-specific definition of contemporary terrorism in Kenya as ideologically driven violence by non-state actors that exploits historical grievances, digital platforms, and vulnerable communities to influence governance to respond to their demands through fear. Through a chronological analysis of Al Shabaab’s operations from 1980 to 2024, we identify shifts from transnational attacks to hybrid asymmetric warfare, including digital radicalisation. The study critiques Kenya’s counterterrorism practices—highlighting the securitisation of ethnic identity, human rights violations, and the politicisation of counterterrorism laws—while acknowledging recent reforms and technological innovations. We propose a four-pronged hybrid model of counter-terrorism strategy in Kenya involving community engagement, technological adaptation, and cross-border intelligence collaboration. Ultimately, we argue that Kenya must recalibrate its approach to prioritise rights-based, locally grounded strategies that build resilience and mitigate extremist appeal.
Kenya, terrorism, Al-Shabaab, securitisation, digital radicalisation, human rights, counter-terrorism
Strategic Modelling for High-Technology Sectors
This paper presents a quantified strategic model to support emerging economies in enhancing economic security and technological self-reliance in high-technology sectors, using the semiconductor industry as a primary case study. Situated in the context of intensifying US-China geopolitical competition, the study analyses the readiness of India and Kenya to develop resilient semiconductor ecosystems. A mixed-methods approach, combining literature review, stakeholder surveys, and expert validation, informs the development of a weighted scoring model that captures the influence of geopolitical dynamics, domestic capabilities, and regional collaboration on economic outcomes. Findings reveal that, while India demonstrates moderate readiness through policy initiatives such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, significant gaps remain in R&D investment and advanced manufacturing. Kenya, though at an earlier stage, demonstrates potential through digital infrastructure projects like Konza Technopolis, but faces foundational challenges in capacity building and policy alignment. The study further generalises the model to other high-tech sectors such as renewable energy, telecommunications, and artificial intelligence, offering a scalable framework for policymakers. By identifying priority areas and proposing a structured implementation roadmap, this study contributes actionable insights for emerging economies seeking to navigate technological transitions and build resilient, globally competitive high-tech industries.
High-Technology Policy, Economic Security, Semiconductor Industry, Geopolitical Competition, Emerging Economic
The Role of the Catholic Church in Curbing Youth Unemployment, Insecurity, and Radicalisation in Kenya
Youth unemployment, insecurity, and radicalisation remain pressing and intertwined challenges in Kenya, with a disproportionate impact on urban and peri-urban youth. While government responses have been documented extensively, the role of faith-based organisations (FBOs) as non-state actors in youth empowerment and security promotion remains underexplored in academic discourse. This study fills this critical gap by analysing the strategic contributions of the Catholic Church in Kenya in mitigating youth unemployment, curbing radicalisation, and promoting community security. Drawing on a qualitative research design, the study utilised 25 semi-structured interviews with Catholic clergy, youth beneficiaries, and program officers, as well as content analysis of over 40 institutional reports and public documents from diocesan development offices across Nairobi, Kisumu, and Eldoret. Findings indicate that Catholic-led initiatives have directly supported over 20,000 youth through vocational training, entrepreneurship incubation, peacebuilding workshops, and counselling services between 2015 and 2023. Programs such as the Catholic Justice and Peace Commission’s youth empowerment centres and Caritas Kenya’s economic resilience hubs have enhanced skills acquisition, social cohesion, and nonviolent conflict resolution. The Church has also contributed to national policy conversations by advocating for youth-focused development strategies and forging interfaith alliances for peace. This paper recommends the urgent expansion of Catholic digital training academies, increased resource allocation to faith-based organisation (FBO)-led vocational institutions, and formalised partnerships between the Church, state, and private sector. By anchoring its interventions in moral teachings and providing practical livelihood support, the Catholic Church exemplifies how FBOs can be transformative agents in Kenya’s security and development architecture.
Catholic Church, Youth Unemployment, Radicalisation, Economic Empowerment, and Peacebuilding
United States and Kenya Counterterrorism Measures
The U.S.-Kenya counterterrorism partnership has played a pivotal role in addressing violent extremism and enhancing regional security in the Horn of Africa. This study examines the evolving nature of U.S.-Kenya cooperation, focusing on intelligence sharing, capacity building, and policy frameworks that shape counterterrorism strategies. The research explores Kenya’s participation in the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) and its role in regional security initiatives, such as the African Union Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS), now the African Union Support and Stabilisation Mission in Somalia (AUSSOM). Utilising a descriptive research design, this study incorporates qualitative data from policy documents, security reports, and expert interviews with law enforcement officials, policymakers, and counterterrorism practitioners. Additionally, it assesses the impact of U.S. financial and technical support, particularly in light of the anticipated withdrawal of JTTF funding by September 2025. Findings reveal that while intelligence-sharing mechanisms and security training have bolstered Kenya’s counterterrorism capabilities, challenges remain in financial sustainability, interagency coordination, and community-led de-radicalisation efforts. Lessons from U.S. counterterrorism frameworks, such as integrated intelligence in prosecution and tackling terror financing, offer valuable insights for Kenya’s strategy moving forward. The study recommends enhancing domestic funding mechanisms, strengthening regional intelligence cooperation, and developing long-term, self-reliant counterterrorism policies. Additionally, a greater focus on community-driven counter-extremism programs and robust legislative frameworks will be essential in mitigating the threat posed by terrorist groups such as Al-Shabaab.
Counterterrorism, intelligence-sharing, Kenya-U.S. cooperation, regional security, violent extremism
Cattle Rustling in Kenya’s Tiaty Sub-County
Cattle rustling in Kenya’s Tiaty sub-county persists as a complex crisis fueled by historical marginalisation, climate-induced resource scarcity, and governance failures. This mixed methods sequential explanatory design study integrates 12 years of incident data (2010–2023), satellite-derived ecological metrics, and phenomenological interviews (n=72) to evaluate state interventions and community perspectives. Findings reveal that infrastructure development (schools, dams) and National Police Reservists (NPRs) reduced raids by 37% and 28%, respectively, while militarised disarmament increased civilian casualties by 19% and deepened distrust. The study introduces the Resource-Governance-Conflict (RGC) framework, demonstrating how drought-driven pasture loss (NDVI < 0.2), corruption (r = 0.61 with raid frequency), and colonial-era grievances intersect to sustain cycles of violence. Community narratives highlight the transformative potential of participatory strategies:78% endorsed dialogue, while microloan programs reduced youth raid participation by 30%. Conversely, 82% condemned state coercion, citing human rights abuses and exclusion from decision-making. Policy recommendations prioritise multi-scalar solutions: (1) a tech-enabled early warning system co-designed with pastoralists; (2) a $5 million Tiaty Youth Empowerment Fund targeting unemployment (62%); (3) cross-border tribunals to dismantle transnational syndicates trafficking 15% of stolen livestock. The RGC framework advances scholarly debates by bridging political ecology and institutional theory, offering a replicable model for pastoral conflicts globally. By centering community agency and ecological justice, this study provides actionable pathways to transform Tiaty from a conflict hotspot into a resilience paradigm, urging policymakers to replace militarisation with equity-driven, climate-smart peacebuilding.
Conflict analysis, conflict drivers, cattle rustling, intervention efficacy, sustainable peace
The Impact of Climate Shocks on Conflicts in Laikipia County, Kenya
This research interrogates how climate shocks (droughts, floods, and heatwaves, among others) affect the level of conflict in Laikipia County. The Environmental Scarcity Theory (EST) served as the theoretical foundation of this study. The research employed a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative research methods to achieve its aims. The study was conducted in Laikipia County, using purposive and stratified sampling techniques to obtain a sample of 150 respondents from a target population comprising the Laikipia County Climate Change Committee, the Ministry of Interior and National Administration, the State Department of ASALs and Regional Development officials, residents, academic personnel, local police officers, area chiefs, and traditional leaders. One hundred thirty-eight respondents completed the survey, yielding a response rate of 92%. Consequently, primary data were collected through 21 key informant interviews (KIIs) and 117 questionnaires. The quantitative data was analysed by computing descriptive statistics, which were presented in tables and graphs. Conversely, qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis and presented in narrative form. Additionally, secondary data came from various relevant sources, including books, academic journals, government reports, and online materials. The study established that Laikipia County experiences increased conflicts due to climate shocks that create a scarcity of resources (land, pasture, and water), as well as disruptions to livelihoods and forced population movements. This study concludes that climate shocks have increased the frequency and intensity of conflicts experienced in Laikipia County. To address this scenario, a multi-pronged trajectory is recommended as the solution to climate-induced disputes in the area of study.
Climate shocks, environmental scarcity, conflict, Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs), Laikipia County
Kenya’s Hybrid Warfare Threats and National Security Infrastructure
Hybrid warfare, which encompasses cyberattacks, physical sabotage, and disinformation, poses escalating threats to Kenya’s critical infrastructure, including undersea cables, energy pipelines, and digital networks. This study assesses Kenya’s preparedness through a qualitative analysis of national policy frameworks. Key findings highlight significant gaps in interagency coordination, resource allocation, and regional cooperation. Guided by systems theory and informed by international comparative models, this study proposes an integrated strategy that emphasises enhanced surveillance, robust public-private partnerships, and alignment with continental agreements. The proposed measures aim to strengthen Kenya’s resilience to hybrid threats while contributing to broader discussions on infrastructure security in developing economies.
Hybrid warfare, critical infrastructure, cybersecurity, Kenya, deterrence theory
The apparatus of cash bail is devised to balance the presumption of innocence with a guarantee of court appearance, which has gradually railed against the existence of socioeconomic and ethnic inequality. This research yields a socio-legal critique of pretrial justice in Mombasa County, Kenya, examining how systemic bail inequities weaken governance credibility and intensify social exclusion. Utilising a multimethod approach, we explored thematic analysis of policy documents, court rulings, and NGO reports; interviews with police officers; regression modelling associating pretrial detention rates (2018–2023) with crime data; GIS-based hotspot mapping; and comparative case studies of bail reform in Germany and Canada. Quantitative results demonstrate that pretrial detention rates have an inverse relationship with community trust (β = –0.45, p < 0.01) and are inseparable from minor offences (3.2 % increase per 10 % rise in detention, p < 0.05), including terrorism recruitment. Logistic decline divulges that detention beyond seventy-two hours significantly raises the probability of reoffending in organised crime (OR = 1.8, p < 0.001). Spatial data analysis reveals coastal counties as points of interest where prolonged detention occurs simultaneously with radical activity. Qualitative intuitions bring to light that ethnic and economic discrimination in police bail decisions wears away civic faith and intensifies grievances that fanatic networks exploit. Considering experiences in other countries, we assert that impartial bail practices, emphasising risk-based assessments, non-monetary release options, and strengthened legal aid, are prerequisites for reinforcing social cohesion and national security. The analysis shows that pretrial justice updates should become part of security planning so bail works as a universal defence mechanism.
Cash Bail, Systemic Inequity, Pretrial Justice, Social Exclusion, Socio-Legal Critique, Governance Credibility, Risk-based Assessments
Integrating Predictive Analytics and Community Engagement in Kenya
This study examines how advanced technologies, including predictive analytics and community engagement, enhance wildlife conservation in Kenya’s private conservancies. Through a mixed-methods approach integrating supervised machine learning analysis of GPS ranger tracks, policy and academic document reviews, and camera trap data from Solio Conservancy, the research evaluates the efficacy of a technology-integrated conservation framework (TICF). Quantitative results demonstrate that predictive analytics achieved 89% accuracy in forecasting poaching hotspots, enabling proactive resource deployment. Qualitative findings reveal robust community support, underpinned by transparent processes, equitable participation, and strengthened trust in conservation initiatives. The TICF framework bridges technological innovation with human-centred strategies, emphasising adaptive tools and sustainable data practices to address ecological and governance complexities. Key challenges, such as data privacy risks, connectivity constraints, and long-term system maintenance, are critically analysed to inform scalable implementation. The study proposes an expansion strategy to adapt the TICF across diverse ecological contexts, offering insights into global biodiversity policy. By synergising evidence-based technologies with community empowerment, the framework positions local stakeholders as pivotal actors in wildlife protection while advancing scalable solutions for habitat preservation. This research underscores the transformative potential of integrated socio-technological systems in conservation, advocating for ethical engagement, ecological adaptability, and inclusive governance. The findings contribute to academic and policy discourses on balancing technological innovation with socio-environmental equity, highlighting pathways to achieve sustainable conservation outcomes in Kenya and beyond.
Wildlife conservation, predictive analytics, community engagement, Kenya, poaching prevention, biodiversity policy
Resilient Health Systems and National Security
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed critical vulnerabilities in both global and national health systems. It underscored the intricate relationship between public health and national security, emphasising the need for robust preparedness frameworks. This study examined how inefficiencies in the medical supply chain could impact Kenya's national security and public health preparedness, identified structural flaws that emerged during the crisis, and provided recommendations to enhance Kenya's preparedness. The study explains the existing structural gaps in the medical supply chain regime in the context of pandemic preparedness. It also examines the threats to Kenya’s health and national security arising from inefficiencies in the medical supply chain. Grounded in resilience theory, this study emphasises collaboration and building strong institutions for better service delivery. To provide well-informed recommendations, the study uses a qualitative approach. Using a case study design, the study draws on Kenya’s specific experiences during the pandemic to provide insights into strengthening national and regional strategies. The study utilised content analysis of documents, publications, and reports to obtain the relevant data. The study established that, whereas the country had a robust health supply chain capability before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, its reliance on global health supply chains during the pandemic exposed the country to health insecurity. It was also evident that for Kenya to be resilient, it must overcome local inefficiencies resulting in financial mismanagement and a lack of anticipatory resilience. It is also imperative for the country to leverage the potential of the East African Community (EAC) to build regional sufficiency. The findings aim to inform key stakeholders, including the Kenyan government’s public health organs.
COVID-19, medical supply chain, national security, pandemic preparedness, public health emergencies
Interface Between Glacial Lake Outburst Floods and National Security in Nepal
This study investigates the implications of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) on national security in Nepal, with a particular focus on their cascading effects on human security. The central research question guiding this inquiry is: How do GLOFs impact human security, and what are their cascading effects on national security in Nepal? A mixed-methods research approach was employed, utilising an explanatory sequential design. The quantitative component involved statistical analysis of secondary data and survey responses, focusing on the frequency and intensity of GLOFs and their impacts on infrastructure, livelihoods, and socio-economic stability. The qualitative component consisted of semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with key stakeholders, including disaster management officials, climate experts, and community representatives, to contextualise and enrich the quantitative findings. The study was conducted across eight high-risk Himalayan districts. A sample of 450 respondents was determined using Cochran’s formula. In addition, three focus group discussions were conducted to gain deeper qualitative insights. The findings underscore the exacerbating influence of climate change and accelerated glacial melting in the Himalayas, which heighten the risks associated with glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These events have profound consequences for human security, thereby contributing to broader national security vulnerabilities. The study identifies significant gaps in Nepal’s disaster risk management framework and calls for a paradigm shift in preparedness strategies. Recommendations include implementing comprehensive risk assessments, establishing robust early warning systems, developing climate-resilient infrastructure, and implementing community-based adaptation measures to enhance resilience.
Climate change, disaster management, GLOFs, glacier melting, Himalayas, human security, Nepal
Regional Integration and Economic Security
This study investigates the impact of East African Community (EAC) integration on Kenya’s economic security by evaluating the outcomes of the Customs Union, Common Market, and proposed Monetary Union. Utilising a mixed-methods design that integrates survey data (n = 170), semi-structured interviews (n = 15), and macroeconomic indicators (2010–2024), the study develops a composite Economic Security Index (ESI) encompassing trade efficiency, labour mobility, and fiscal health. Findings show that Kenya’s ESI improved from 52.1 in 2010 to 68.4 in 2023, with the Common Market—especially labour mobility—emerging as the strongest driver (β = 0.402). However, progress remains uneven: the manufacturing and logistics sectors benefited from adherence to the Common External Tariff, while agriculture lagged due to persistent non-tariff barriers (NTBs) and phytosanitary disputes. Monetary integration showed the weakest impact, constrained by inflation divergence and fiscal asymmetries among member states. The study extends Balassa’s (1961) integration model by revealing asymmetric policy spillovers and the critical role of institutional enforcement. Qualitative data expose regulatory fragmentation, informal payments at borders, and licensing delays that hinder professional mobility. Policy recommendations include digitising customs via blockchain, establishing mutual recognition agreements, and capitalising a regional small and medium enterprises credit guarantee fund. These insights offer a nuanced understanding of regional integration’s potential and limitations in advancing economic security in Africa.
Regional Integration, Economic Security, Kenya, Customs Union
The Socio-Economic Implications of Terrorism on Human Security in the Horn of Africa Region
Terrorism poses a serious threat to peace and security in the international system. Many studies, however, examine these threats from a state-centric security perspective, where the emphasis is on the immediate damages caused when terrorists strike. Though terrorism significantly compromises freedom from fear, it equally affects freedom from want. This study thus examines the impact of terrorism on human security in the Horn of Africa, with a primary focus on the northeastern region of Kenya. To achieve this objective, the study focuses on how the Al-Shabaab terrorist group has compromised several core qualitative variables, including human rights, sustainable economic opportunities, safety, and the rule of law. The study further underscores how terrorism has created a toxic environment for the attainment of human development in the region. The primary data used to corroborate the secondary sources was obtained through interviews with experts. Expert opinion among security officials, local administrators, and scholars who are versed in the subject was sought. The data analysis entailed triangulation of the forms of data collected, that is, for both primary and secondary sources. The findings of this study depict that human security has been negatively affected by terrorism. The study reveals that the aspects of human security affected by terrorism include human rights, sustainable economic opportunities, safety, the rule of law, and human development. Thus, this study recommends that there is an urgent need for policymakers to rethink the impact of terrorism on security from a human security perspective. In addition, the study recommends that counter-terrorism measures should promote safety and the rule of law, participation and human rights, economic opportunities, and human development. Understanding how terrorism impacts human security in North Eastern Kenya is crucial for developing comprehensive security strategies that address the root causes and effects of terrorism, rather than just the symptoms.
Al-Shabaab, Social exclusion, sustainable economic opportunities, Socio-cultural Rights
Copyright (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Rise of State-Sponsored Cyber-attacks
The recent years have seen an increase in state-sponsored acts of cyberattacks that are becoming increasingly sophisticated. These attacks mainly target the nation’s critical infrastructure, such as communication systems, electricity generation and distribution systems, transportation systems, health support systems, and financial services, whose collapse and unavailability can lead to partial or total collapse with huge reputation, economic, security, and political implications. As organizations and nations grapple with the challenges posed by increasingly sophisticated cyber threats, it is imperative to examine how current cybersecurity strategies are responding to them and if these responses are adequate. Failure to address these challenges portends exposing critical infrastructure, sensitive data, and national security interests to unprecedented levels of danger and disruption. This study therefore seeks to analyze the rise of state-sponsored cyberattacks, and its significance lies in assessing how nations can enhance these capabilities, foster international cooperation and collaboration, and strengthen cyber resilience and incident response preparedness. The study has adopted a mixed-methods research design to triangulate data from various documented sources and provide a comprehensive understanding of state-sponsored cyber threats and cybersecurity strategies. It also provides recommendations such as robust governance structures, increasing investments, strengthening partnerships with allies and international organizations, information sharing and analysis centers, integrating robust incident response, development and training programmes, continuous monitoring and evaluation, and eventually further research to be done.
cyber-attacks, state-sponsored, defence systems, international relations, national security
Technology Development and Cybercrime in Juja Sub-County
Before technological advancements, the world primarily dealt with physical threats. However, with the rise of technology, cybercrime has emerged, becoming accessible to anyone possessing the required skills. Cybercrimes, such as stalking, hacking, phishing, online fraud, identity theft, and virus dissemination, have increased, employing increasingly sophisticated methods daily. These offenses inflict damage ranging from personal identity theft to financial losses, particularly affecting developing countries transitioning to cashless economies. This article explores the impact of technological growth on cybercrime within the Juja sub-county, illustrating how crime evolves alongside technology. An extensive review of existing literature highlights various types of cybercrimes and their consequences, emphasizing the challenges they pose to law enforcement globally. While the Internet offers immense development opportunities, it also serves as a breeding ground for criminal activities. This paradox underscores the need for enhanced regulation and enforcement, particularly in developing nations lacking adequate technology and infrastructure. The expansion of technology has made communication borderless and transnational, complicating cybercrime investigations that often require cooperation across multiple jurisdictions. The paper advocates for a comprehensive approach to combat cybercrime, including establishing robust legal frameworks, strengthening enforcement agencies with advanced technology, and empowering youth with entrepreneurial skills to deter involvement in cybercriminal activities. It also calls for universal criminalization of cyber offenses under international laws and treaties. To reduce the adverse effects of technology on development, the paper recommends creating products that are resilient to cybercrime and enhancing the processes for crime detection and investigation. Tracing the historical evolution of technology underscores both its positive innovations and negative consequences, urging policymakers, businesses, and individuals to recognize cybercrime as a global issue requiring collective action.
Cybercrime, Cyberspace, hacking, Cyber-attacks, Computer Crime, Identity Theft, phishing, hackers, fintech
Enhancing Cyber Resilience through Adaptive Security Policies
Rapid advancements in technology have led to increased cyber incidents and data breaches. This has made cyber resilience a crucial aspect of a comprehensive cybersecurity framework. Kenya has also seen a surge in cyberattacks targeting critical infrastructure and important government services. This underscores the need for a cybersecurity resilience framework based on adaptive security principles. The Directorate of Immigration and Citizen Services is crucial in providing efficient services and setting cybersecurity standards for all government agencies. This study investigates how adaptive security policies bolster cyber resilience within the Directorate of Immigration Services in Kenya while scrutinising the impact of organisational culture on both technical and non-technical aspects of cybersecurity resilience. The research design used a mixed-methods approach, including a systematic literature review and interviews with 73 cybersecurity professionals, system administrators, network engineers, and non-technical staff from the Directorate. Data collection methods included questionnaires, interviews, and forensic examination of past cyber incidents. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis. The study reveals that the Directorate of Immigration Services uses advanced technologies and methods to address cyber threats. However, challenges remain in identifying, addressing, and recovering from these incidents. Organisational culture is vital in promoting cybersecurity awareness and practices among employees. To enhance cyber resilience in the Directorate of Immigration Services and throughout Kenya, a comprehensive strategy is needed. This strategy should include promoting awareness, providing targeted training, reviewing policies, and implementing cutting-edge technologies. The research also suggests developing a national cyber resilience framework, adopting an adaptive security approach, fostering a security-first culture, prioritising cyber resilience training, implementing a comprehensive risk management framework, and establishing standardised incident reporting and response mechanisms to ensure cybersecurity resilience in Kenya.
security, policies, cyber-resilience, immigration, cyber threats